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IJMB Islamic Studies (IRS) Paper I Questions and Answers
The questions and answers for the 2024/2025 IJMB Islamic Studies (IRS) are currently available for free access below.
Number One
(1)
(i) Early Life and Lineage: Umar ibn al-Khattab (R.A) was born into the Banu Adi clan of the Quraysh tribe. A respected and influential family in Makkah. He was well-known for his strong character, eloquence, and intelligence even before accepting Islam. As a youth, Umar was trained in martial arts, horsemanship, and was deeply engaged in the social and political affairs of Quraysh society. He was also literate, a rare trait among the Arabs at the time, and had a sharp memory, which later served him in Islamic jurisprudence and governance.
(ii) Opposition to Islam and Initial Hostility: Before converting to Islam, Umar was one of the fiercest opponents of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and his message. He strongly supported the traditional polytheistic beliefs of the Quraysh. In addition, He also viewed Islam as a threat to the social order and religious traditions of Makkah. He participated in the persecution of early Muslims and was part of the decision-making councils that sought to suppress the Prophet’s mission. At one point, he even set out with the intention of killing the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), which underlines his early hostility.
(iii) Conversion to Islam: Umar’s conversion marked a turning point in the Islamic movement in Makkah. After a profound spiritual awakening, reportedly after reading verses from Surah Taha, he embraced Islam. His acceptance gave Muslims a tremendous morale boost, as he was known for his strength, courage, and influence. His conversion brought confidence to the Muslim community, who could then begin practicing their faith more openly. Umar’s support allowed the Muslims to perform congregational prayers at the Ka‘bah for the first time in public. As he challenged anyone who would dare oppose him.
(iv) Protection and Advocacy for the Muslim Community: After embracing Islam, Umar became a pillar of strength for the early Muslims. He stood as a protector and advocate, especially for the weak and oppressed members of the Muslim community. His boldness often discouraged the Quraysh from harassing Muslims. Umar also defended the Prophet (SAW) during critical moments of persecution. His public declaration of faith inspired many others to consider Islam seriously.
(v) Participation in Early Islamic Migration: Umar was among the few Muslims who migrated to Madinah openly. Unlike many others who did so in secret due to fear of Quraysh retaliation. Before his migration, he is famously known to have declared publicly that anyone who wanted their mother to lose a son should follow him. This courageous act emphasized his unwavering commitment to Islam and showcased his bravery and leadership qualities even before he became caliph.
(vi) Contribution to Islamic Battles: Umar took part in major battles during the lifetime of the Prophet (SAW). Such as the Battle of Badr, the Battle of Uhud, the Battle of Khandaq, and others. His strategic insight and valor were valuable assets in these confrontations. He stood close to the Prophet during times of war and peace, always offering support, advice, and his unwavering loyalty.
(vii) Advisory Role to the Prophet Muhammad (SAW): Even before becoming caliph, Umar held a significant advisory role to the Prophet. He was known for his intelligence, wisdom, and straightforwardness. Many of his suggestions were affirmed by divine revelation, and his judgment was often praised by the Prophet himself. Examples include his proposal for the call to prayer (Adhan), his opinion regarding the captives of the Battle of Badr, and his insistence on the hijab for the wives of the Prophet.
(viii) Contribution to the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and Peace-building Efforts: Though Umar initially objected to the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, considering it unfavorable. He eventually submitted to the Prophet’s judgment. His questions during the treaty discussions illustrate his sincere concern for the dignity and rights of the Muslim Ummah. His passionate defense of Islam and his desire for justice continued to highlight his importance among the companions.
(ix) Piety and Knowledge: Before becoming caliph, Umar was already known for his deep piety and sense of justice. He was among the foremost in performing good deeds, praying regularly, and studying the Qur’an. His sincerity and humility, paired with a powerful personality, earned him great respect among the companions. He was known for weeping during prayers and spending in the cause of Allah generously.
(x) Preparation for Leadership: Though he did not aspire to leadership. Umar’s actions and decisions throughout his time as a companion of the Prophet (SAW) laid the foundation for his eventual caliphate. His administrative capabilities, legal foresight, and disciplined nature demonstrated that he was well-prepared to assume the responsibilities of a leader. Which would later manifest during his reign as the second caliph of Islam.
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Number Two
(2)
(i) Threat to Socio-Political Power: The Quraysh were the custodians of the Ka‘bah. They held significant political and religious influence over the tribes of Arabia. Islam’s monotheistic message challenged the polytheistic structure that underpinned their power. If accepted, Islam would have undermined their religious authority and weakened their control over other tribes who revered the Ka‘bah and its idols. This perceived threat made them reject the message to preserve their dominance.
(ii) Economic Interests: The Quraysh profited immensely from idol worship. The annual pilgrimage (Hajj) which attracted visitors to Makkah. Pilgrims brought trade and business, making the city a commercial hub. Islam’s call for the destruction of idols and exclusive worship of one God was seen as a direct threat to this economic livelihood. Accepting Islam would have meant the loss of income generated through idol sales, sacrifices, and services to pilgrims.
(iii) Tribal Loyalty and Tradition: Arab society at the time was deeply rooted in tribal customs and ancestral traditions. The Quraysh viewed Islam as a betrayal of their forefathers’ religion. Abandoning their traditional beliefs for a new doctrine, especially one promoted by someone within their own tribe, was culturally unacceptable. This loyalty to inherited customs over divine revelation led to a strong emotional and cultural rejection of Islam.
(iv) Pride and Arrogance: Many of the Quraysh elite were filled with pride and arrogance. They questioned why divine revelation would come to Muhammad (SAW), an orphan and not one of the wealthy or influential leaders. This class pride made them unwilling to accept someone they saw as socially beneath them as a Prophet. Their ego and arrogance prevented them from acknowledging the truth of his message.
(v) Fear of Social Equality: Islam promoted values of equality, justice, and brotherhood. It placed slaves, the poor, and the weak on the same level as the elite in matters of faith and dignity. The Quraysh, who enjoyed a privileged social status, could not accept a system where their slaves and lower classes were considered their equals. This radical call for social reform threatened the existing hierarchical structure.
(vi) Persecution as a Deterrent Strategy: Rather than considering the message, the Quraysh resorted to persecuting early Muslims to suppress the spread of Islam. Torturing slaves like Bilal (R.A), boycotting the Muslims in Sha‘b Abi Talib, and plotting to kill the Prophet were all efforts to extinguish the religion. These acts were driven by a desire to maintain the status quo and discourage others from joining Islam.
(vii) Fear of Tribal Conflict: Accepting Islam meant breaking tribal unity and risked internal conflict among the Qurays. Also, an external confrontation with other tribes. Leaders feared that the adoption of a new religion could lead to civil strife and weaken their collective strength, making them vulnerable to external enemies.
(viii) Influence of Poets and Orators: The Quraysh were highly influenced by their poets, orators, and religious scholars. Many of whom condemned the Prophet’s message as sorcery, poetry, or tales of the ancients. These influential figures shaped public opinion and spread doubt, slander, and mockery against Islam, thereby fueling rejection.
(ix) Divine Wisdom and Testing: From a theological perspective, the rejection of Islam by the Quraysh was also part of Allah’s divine plan to test the Prophet and the believers. The Qur’an repeatedly mentions that previous prophets were similarly rejected by their people. The opposition of the Quraysh served to strengthen the resolve of Muslims and to highlight the eventual triumph of truth over falsehood.
(x) Fear of Losing Unity and Identity: The Quraysh feared that Islam would fracture the collective identity of the Quraysh tribe. Since Islam required absolute obedience to Allah above tribal loyalties. It would erode the central role of the tribe in decision-making and diminish the clan-based unity that had sustained them for generations.
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Number Three
(3)
=ACTIVITIES=
(i) Early Acceptance of Islam: Ali ibn Abi Talib was among the first people to accept Islam. As a young boy living in the household of Prophet Muhammad (SAW), he embraced Islam at the age of around 10. His early acceptance reflected both his intelligence and spiritual insight. He became the first child to accept the message of monotheism.
(ii) Support During the Prophet’s Early Mission: Ali played a crucial role in supporting the Prophet during the difficult early years of Islam in Makkah. He stood by the Prophet against the Quraysh’s opposition and never hesitated to defend the faith, even at great personal risk. His presence was a source of strength and inspiration to many early Muslims.
(iii) Participation in the Prophet’s Hijrah (Migration): During the Prophet’s migration to Madinah, Ali was chosen to stay behind and sleep in the Prophet’s bed to deceive the Quraysh assassins. This act of bravery could have cost him his life, but he agreed without hesitation, demonstrating absolute loyalty and courage. After the Prophet’s safe departure, Ali returned valuables that had been entrusted to the Prophet and later joined him in Madinah.
(iv) Military Engagements: Ali was a distinguished warrior in early Islamic battles. He actively participated in the Battle of Badr, the Battle of Uhud, the Battle of Khandaq (Trench), and the Battle of Khaybar, among others. He was known for his bravery, strength, and skill with the sword. His courage was unmatched, and he was often selected by the Prophet for critical confrontations.
(v) Role in Treaty and Peace Negotiations: Ali also acted as a scribe and mediator during important treaties. For example, during the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, he was tasked with writing the terms of the agreement. Though met with resistance when writing “Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah,”. He remained composed and obedient to the Prophet’s instructions, displaying emotional maturity and discipline.
(vi) Close Companion and Family Member: Being both the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet (having married Fatimah al-Zahra). Ali enjoyed a unique closeness to the Prophet. This allowed him to be consistently present in religious, political, and personal matters. Thus, making him one of the most trusted companions. He absorbed the Prophet’s teachings directly and deeply.
(vii) Involvement in Propagation of Islam: Ali actively engaged in spreading the message of Islam. The Prophet once sent him to Yemen as a judge and missionary. There, Ali displayed excellent oratory and legal skills, converting many people to Islam and resolving tribal disputes, earning respect and admiration.
=CONTRIBUTIONS=
(i) Defense of Islam and the Prophet: Ali was among the most fearless defenders of the Prophet and Islam. His heroism on the battlefield preserved Muslim lives and protected the integrity of the young Muslim community. His participation in duels, especially against champions of Quraysh, often turned the tide of battles in favor of the Muslims.
(ii) Spiritual and Intellectual Legacy: Ali was known for his deep knowledge of the Qur’an and Sunnah. He was regarded as a master of Islamic jurisprudence, wisdom, and eloquence. Many of his sermons, sayings, and letters have been preserved and studied for centuries. Especially in texts like Nahjul Balagha, showcasing his insight and understanding of governance, ethics, and faith.
(iii) Judicial Contributions: Even before becoming caliph, Ali served as a judge in several cases during the Prophet’s time and the caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar. His judgments were known for fairness, accuracy, and depth of reasoning. Caliph Umar once famously said: “If it were not for Ali, Umar would have perished,” indicating how much he relied on Ali’s legal intellect.
(iv) Moral and Ethical Example: Ali’s lifestyle was marked by simplicity, humility, and devotion. He was a model of piety and self-discipline. He lived modestly, gave in charity, and stood firmly for justice, regardless of personal cost. His personal ethics influenced the values of the Muslim community deeply.
(v) Family of the Prophet: Through his marriage to Fatimah, Ali became the father of Hasan and Husayn, who played major roles in Islamic history. His household was considered part of the Ahl al-Bayt, a revered family in Islam. His role as the father of this family further reinforced his spiritual significance and contribution to Islamic heritage.
(vi) Preservation and Transmission of Knowledge: Ali was instrumental in preserving the Prophet’s teachings and served as a source of knowledge for many companions and successors. His students, such as Ibn Abbas and others, carried his insights forward. His teachings laid the intellectual foundation for several schools of thought, including significant influence on Shia jurisprudence.
(vii) Promotion of Justice and Equality: Ali always advocated for the rights of the poor, orphans, and the marginalized. His voice was a constant reminder of social justice. Even before his caliphate, he actively defended the weak and ensured that Islamic values of equality were upheld in both private and public life.
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Number Four
(4i)
Shari‘ah:
=Meaning=
Shari‘ah refers to the divine Islamic law derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah, governing all aspects of a Muslim’s life including religious, social, economic, and political matters. It is the comprehensive code of conduct ordained by Allah (SWT) to guide human behavior towards moral, spiritual, and legal uprightness. The term literally means “a clear path to water,” symbolizing the way to a righteous and fulfilling life.
=Aims of Shari‘ahh=
(i) Protection of Religion (Hifz al-Deen): Shari‘ah seeks to preserve and protect the Islamic faith by mandating acts of worship (such as Salat, Sawm, Zakat, and Hajj) and forbidding disbelief, apostasy, and heresy. This ensures that religious identity and spiritual obligations are maintained in individual and communal life.
(ii) Protection of Life (Hifz al-Nafs): Shari‘ah emphasizes the sanctity of human life. It prohibits murder, injury, and harm to others, while prescribing punishments for homicide and violence. It also promotes healthcare, safety, and the preservation of human dignity.
(iii) Protection of Intellect (Hifz al-‘Aql): To safeguard human reasoning and intellectual capacity, Shari‘ah forbids intoxicants and substances that impair judgment. It encourages the pursuit of knowledge, reflection, and education, all of which contribute to societal growth and enlightenment.
(iv) Protection of Lineage (Hifz al-Nasl): Shari‘ah aims to protect family values and genealogy through the institution of marriage and the prohibition of adultery and fornication. It promotes lawful sexual relations and inheritance laws to maintain social order and dignity.
(v) Protection of Property (Hifz al-Maal): The Shari‘ah protects individual and communal wealth through regulations on trade, inheritance, zakat, charity, and the prohibition of theft, fraud, and usury. It encourages financial justice and economic responsibility.
(4ii)
The Primary Sources: The Qur’an and Sunnah:
=Meaning=
(i) The Qur’an: The Qur’an is the final and most authoritative divine revelation sent by Allah (SWT) to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) in Arabic. It contains laws, moral guidance, spiritual teachings, and stories of previous nations. It is the foundational source of Shari‘ah.
(ii) The Sunnah: The Sunnah refers to the sayings (Hadith), actions, and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW). It explains and complements the Qur’an, providing practical examples of its implementation in daily life.
=Aims of the Primary Sources in Shari‘ah=
(i) Establishing Divine Guidance: The Qur’an and Sunnah serve as the ultimate guide for all aspects of life, ensuring that Muslims live in harmony with divine commandments. They offer detailed rules for worship, justice, morality, and social conduct.
(ii) Clarification of Laws and Principles: The Qur’an gives general directives, and the Sunnah elaborates on these through specific practices of the Prophet. This ensures that Islamic teachings are not abstract but are clearly understood and practiced.
(iii) Encouragement of Justice and Mercy: Both sources promote fairness, compassion, and human dignity. Legal rulings aim to balance the rights and responsibilities of individuals and society.
(iv) Spiritual and Moral Development: They emphasize the importance of faith, sincerity, patience, gratitude, and other virtues necessary for spiritual growth and ethical living.
(v) Formation of a Unified Muslim Community (Ummah): The Qur’an and Sunnah provide a cohesive framework that binds Muslims together across regions and cultures through a shared system of belief and law.
(4iii)
The Secondary Sources: Ijma‘, Qiyas, and Ijtihad:
=Meaning=
(i) Ijma‘ (Consensus): The unanimous agreement of qualified Islamic scholars on a legal ruling after the death of the Prophet. It serves as proof of the collective wisdom and interpretation of the Muslim community.
(ii) Qiyas (Analogical Reasoning): The process of deriving legal rulings for new situations by comparing them with established rulings that have similar causes (ʿillah). It extends the application of divine law to new circumstances.
(iii) Ijtihad (Independent Juristic Reasoning): The scholarly effort to interpret and apply Islamic principles to complex or novel issues not explicitly addressed in the Qur’an or Sunnah. It allows for flexibility and relevance in lawmaking.
=Aims of the Secondary Sources in Shari‘ah=
(i) Adapting to New Challenges: Ijma‘, Qiyas, and Ijtihad help Islamic law remain applicable in changing times and contexts, ensuring that new issues are addressed within the framework of Shari‘ah.
(ii) Preservation of Islamic Legal Integrity: These sources ensure that the spirit and objectives of Shari‘ah are upheld, even when facing modern developments in science, medicine, economics, and society.
(iii) Promotion of Scholarly Engagement: By encouraging qualified scholars to derive rulings, these sources promote deep study, critical thinking, and intellectual responsibility among jurists.
(iv) Unity in Legal Judgement: Ijma‘, in particular, reinforces communal agreement and minimizes legal chaos. It provides confidence to the Muslim masses in the decisions of their scholars.
(v) Flexibility and Mercy: Through Ijtihad and Qiyas, Shari‘ah accommodates diverse situations and human needs. This flexibility ensures that the law does not become rigid or oppressive, preserving justice and compassion.
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Number Five
(5i)
Salat al-Istisqa (Prayer for Rain):
=Nature of Salat al-Istisqa=
Salat al-Istisqa is a special prayer offered when there is a severe drought or lack of rainfall, and people seek Allah’s mercy and provision of rain. It is a Sunnah Mu’akkadah (emphasized Sunnah), meaning the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) performed it, and it is recommended for Muslims to do the same in times of need.
=Details of the Nature=
(i) Time and Occasion: It is performed when rain is desperately needed, and the land is dry, crops are withering, and water resources are depleting. The prayer is usually conducted in the morning, after sunrise but before Dhuhr, on a day selected by the imam.
(ii) Place of Prayer: Salat al-Istisqa is preferably performed in an open field or desert, similar to Eid prayers. This setting symbolizes humility and dependence on Allah.
(iii) Form and Structure: It consists of two rak‘ahs, similar to the Eid prayer. It includes audible recitation of Surah al-Fatihah and another surah in each rak‘ah, with additional Takbirs (usually 7 in the first rak‘ah and 5 in the second), as done in Eid prayers.
(iv) Khutbah (Sermon): After the two rak‘ahs, the imam delivers a Khutbah encouraging people to repent, give charity, return to righteousness, and increase supplication (du‘a) and istighfar (seeking forgiveness). The sermon highlights Allah’s power and mercy.
(v) Du‘a and Orientation: The imam then raises his hands and makes a prolonged supplication for rain, and the congregation also raises their hands. A Sunnah act in this prayer is that the imam may turn his cloak or shawl inside out, symbolizing a change in condition and expressing hope for a change from drought to rainfall.
(vi) Spiritual Significance: Salat al-Istisqa reminds Muslims of their absolute dependence on Allah for natural provisions. It encourages humility, repentance, and social responsibility, as sins are often seen as a cause of withheld blessings.
(5ii)
Salat al-Khusuf: Shams (Solar Eclipse) and Qamar (Lunar Eclipse):
=Nature of Salat al-Khusuf (Solar Eclipse) and Salat al-Khusuf al-Qamar (Lunar Eclipse)=
These are special prayers performed during solar and lunar eclipses, known respectively as Salat al-Kusuf (for the sun) and Salat al-Khusuf (for the moon). The Prophet (SAW) taught that eclipses are signs from Allah, not natural occurrences to be feared superstitiously, and Muslims should turn to prayer, reflection, and repentance during them.
=Details of the Nature=
(i) Reason for the Prayer: The eclipses are not considered bad omens in Islam. The Prophet (SAW) said:
“The sun and the moon are two signs from the signs of Allah. They do not eclipse because of the death or birth of anyone. So, when you see them, pray and invoke Allah.”
(ii) Timing: The prayer is performed during the eclipse and ends when the eclipse ends. There is no fixed time of day or night; it depends entirely on the occurrence of the eclipse.
(iii) Number of Rak‘ahs and Structure: Salat al-Khusuf (whether solar or lunar) is two rak‘ahs, but each rak‘ah has two ruku‘ (bowings) and two qiyam (standings). This differs from the normal daily prayers, which have one ruku‘ per rak‘ah. In each rak‘ah:
(a) First Qiyam: Long recitation from the Qur’an.
(b) First Ruku‘: Prolonged bowing.
(c) Then standing again for another long recitation.
(d) Second Ruku‘: Another bowing.
(e) Then sujud (prostration) twice as usual.
(f) The second rak‘ah is performed in the same way.
(iv) Silent or Loud Recitation:
(a) Solar eclipse: The prayer is performed silently, as it occurs during the day.
(b) Lunar eclipse: The recitation is performed aloud, as it occurs at night.
(v) Khutbah and Supplication:
After the prayer, the imam may deliver a sermon, urging people to remember Allah, repent, give charity, and perform good deeds. The congregation is encouraged to make du‘a, dhikr (remembrance), and seek forgiveness during the eclipse.
(vi) Educational and Spiritual Purpose:
The aim of these prayers is to remind Muslims of Allah’s majesty and power. Eclipses reflect the greatness of Allah’s control over the cosmos, and the prayer serves as a time of reflection, awe, repentance, and return to faith.
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Number Six
(6)
=Prerequisite Conditions for the Performance of Hajj (Shuruṭ al-Wujub)=
(i) Islam: The individual must be a Muslim. Hajj is an act of worship prescribed exclusively for followers of Islam. A non-Muslim is not permitted to perform Hajj, and if they do so, it is not valid or accepted.
(ii) Sanity (‘Aql): The person must be of sound mind. A mentally ill or insane person is not obligated to perform Hajj. Sanity ensures the individual understands the rituals and their significance.
(iii) Puberty (Bulugh): The pilgrim must have reached puberty. While a child may perform Hajj, it does not fulfill the compulsory obligation of Hajj. Once the individual reaches maturity, the duty remains until it is performed.
(iv) Freedom (Hurriyyah): Hajj is obligatory only on a free person. In the past, enslaved persons were not obligated, as they lacked autonomy. In modern times, this condition has little direct application, but it historically ensured personal capacity to undertake the journey.
(v) Financial and Physical Capability (Istita‘ah): The person must be physically and financially capable. Financial capability includes the cost of travel, accommodation, food, and return journey, as well as provisions for dependents during the pilgrim’s absence. Physical capability means the individual is healthy enough to undertake and complete the Hajj rituals. If a person is permanently disabled or terminally ill, a proxy (Hajj al-Badal) may be appointed on their behalf.
(vi) Safety and Security: The journey to and from Hajj must be reasonably safe. If there is serious danger due to war, political unrest, or epidemic, the obligation may be delayed until safety is assured.
(vii) Availability of Mahram for Women: A woman who does not have a mahram (a male guardian such as her husband or a male relative whom she cannot marry) is not obligated to perform Hajj unless safe and secure group travel is guaranteed. In many modern jurisdictions, this requirement is relaxed due to organized group pilgrimages and government supervision ensuring women’s safety.
=Various Places of Miqat (Appointed Stations for Assuming Ihram)=
Miqat refers to the specific locations set by the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) where pilgrims intending to perform Hajj or ‘Umrah must assume the state of Ihram before entering the sacred boundary of Makkah. Anyone crossing these boundaries intending pilgrimage must do so in the state of Ihram; otherwise, a penalty (dam) is due.
(i) Dhul-Hulayfah (Abyar Ali): Located approximately 18 km from Madinah and around 410 km from Makkah. It is the Miqat for the people of Madinah and those coming from that direction. This is the farthest Miqat from Makkah and is known for its mosque and facilities to assist pilgrims.
(ii) Juhfah: Situated near Rabigh, about 183 km northwest of Makkah. It is the Miqat for pilgrims arriving from the direction of the Levant (Syria, Jordan, Palestine, and Lebanon), as well as Egypt and other parts of North Africa. Due to erosion of the original site, most pilgrims today assume Ihram from Rabigh.
(iii) Qarn al-Manazil (al-Sayl al-Kabir): Located around 75–80 km east of Makkah in the direction of Najd. It is the Miqat for pilgrims coming from central Arabia, including Riyadh and the eastern provinces.
(iv) Yalamlam: Located approximately 92 km to the south of Makkah. It is the Miqat for pilgrims arriving from the direction of Yemen and those arriving by sea through the southern Red Sea ports. Many pilgrims from India, Pakistan, and the Far East also use this Miqat when arriving by ship or from Jeddah port.
(v) Dhat ‘Irq: Located around 94 km northeast of Makkah, it is the Miqat for pilgrims arriving from Iraq and surrounding areas. Though it was not explicitly mentioned by the Prophet, it was designated by later caliphs like Umar ibn al-Khattab (RA) for ease of access for people of that region.
(vi) Airplane Miqat (Modern Application): For pilgrims arriving by air, airlines typically announce the approaching Miqat about 30–45 minutes before the boundary is crossed, giving pilgrims enough time to change into Ihram attire and make their intention (niyyah). Pilgrims must be in Ihram before crossing over any of the established Miqat boundaries from the air.
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Number Seven
(7i)
Jabir Ibn Hayyan (Geber):
=Area of Specialization=
Chemistry (Alchemy), Pharmacy, Medicine, Philosophy, Astronomy.
=Contributions=
(i) Father of Chemistry: Jabir systematized and transformed alchemy into a scientific discipline, earning him the title “Father of Chemistry.” He introduced the concept of experimentation and laboratory technique.
(ii) Invention of Laboratory Apparatus: He developed instruments such as the alembic (al-anbiq), which revolutionized the process of distillation.
(iii) Chemical Processes: He classified and described chemical processes like sublimation, crystallization, calcination, evaporation, and filtration.
(iv) Acid Discovery: He was the first to prepare strong acids such as nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and sulfuric acid.
(v) Influence on European Science: His works were translated into Latin and influenced medieval European chemistry. His “Book of Chemical Recipes” and “Book of Balance” laid foundations for quantitative chemistry.
(7ii)
Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi (al-Gorizm):
=Area of Specialization=
Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography.
=Contributions=
(i) Founder of Algebra: He wrote the famous book Al-Kitab al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wal-Muqabala, from which the word “algebra” is derived.
>(ii) Introduction of Hindu-Arabic Numerals: He introduced the Hindu numeral system (0–9) to the Islamic world and later to Europe.
>(iii) Algorithm Concept: The term “algorithm” is derived from the Latinized version of his name (Algoritmi), highlighting his contribution to step-by-step problem solving.
(iv) Trigonometry and Astronomy: He contributed to trigonometric tables and astronomical charts used in determining prayer times and qiblah direction.
(v) Geographical Maps: He revised Ptolemy’s Geography and contributed to the compilation of maps and coordinates of cities.
(7iii)
Al-Kindi:
=Area of Specialization=
Philosophy, Mathematics, Medicine, Optics, Music, Meteorology.
=Contributions=
(i) First Arab Philosopher: Al-Kindi harmonized Greek philosophy with Islamic thought, translating and commenting on works of Aristotle and Plato.
>(ii) Mathematical Theory of Music: He analyzed the mathematical ratios in music, influencing musical theory in the Islamic and Western worlds.
>(iii) Cryptography and Decoding: He wrote one of the earliest texts on cryptanalysis, including frequency analysis.
>(iv) Optics and Vision Theory: He contributed to the understanding of light and vision, laying groundwork for later scholars like Ibn al-Haytham.
(v) Ethics and Ethics in Governance: He applied philosophical reasoning to ethics, politics, and governance, emphasizing reason over emotion.
(7iv)
Al-Razi (Rhazes):
=Area of Specialization=
Medicine, Chemistry, Philosophy.
=Contributions=
(i) Comprehensive Medical Texts: His Kitab al-Hawi (The Comprehensive Book) was an encyclopedic medical reference translated into Latin and used in European universities.
(ii) Smallpox and Measles Diagnosis: He was the first to differentiate between smallpox and measles clinically.
(iii) Pharmaceutical Innovations: He developed new methods in drug preparation and treatment using alcohol and antiseptics.
(iv) Scientific Method in Medicine: He emphasized clinical observation and experiment over blind reliance on authorities.
(v) Hospitals and Medical Ethics: He organized hospitals and wrote on physician-patient relations, emphasizing care and ethics.
(7v)
Al-Farabi:
=Area of Specialization=
Philosophy, Political Science, Music, Logic.
=Contributions=
(i) Political Philosophy: In Al-Madina al-Fadila (The Virtuous City), he proposed a utopian society ruled by philosopher-kings, influenced by Plato and Aristotle.
(ii) Classification of Knowledge: He developed a systematic classification of sciences and knowledge, including religious and rational sciences.
(iii) Logic and Epistemology: He advanced Aristotelian logic and was instrumental in preserving and commenting on Greek logic.
>(iv) Music Theory: His Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (Great Book of Music) studied musical intervals, scales, and instruments.
>(v) Influence on Islamic and Christian Thought: His ideas were foundational for Ibn Sina and later influenced Western thinkers like Thomas Aquinas.
(7vi)
Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis):
=Area of Specialization=
Surgery, Medicine.
=Contributions=
(i) Father of Modern Surgery: His encyclopedia Al-Tasrif included over 200 surgical instruments and detailed illustrations, forming the foundation for European surgical practice.
(ii) First to Describe Hemophilia: He provided clinical descriptions of inherited bleeding disorders.
(iii) Innovations in Surgical Tools: He invented scalpels, forceps, and surgical needles still relevant today.
(iv) Pioneered Cauterization: He described methods of cauterization to stop bleeding and treat wounds.
(v) Medical Education: His emphasis on the practical training of physicians and surgeons was revolutionary.
(7vii)
Ibn Sina (Avicenna):
=Area of Specialization=
Medicine, Philosophy, Logic, Astronomy, Mathematics.
=Contributions=
(i) The Canon of Medicine (Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb): A 5-volume medical encyclopedia used as a standard text in Europe and the Islamic world for centuries.
>(ii) Medical Diagnosis and Pharmacology: He described hundreds of diseases and treatments, combining clinical observation with pharmacology.
>(iii) Metaphysics and Theology: His works on the nature of the soul, existence, and God had profound impact on Islamic theology and Western philosophy.
(iv) Psychology and Mind: He classified mental disorders and developed early theories of psychology.
(v) Scientific Method: He emphasized empirical observation, logic, and reasoning, influencing the development of the scientific method.
(7viii)
Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar):
=Area of Specialization=
Medicine, Surgery.
=Contributions=
(i) Clinical Observation: He promoted direct examination of patients and post-mortem studies to understand disease.
(ii) Descriptions of Diseases: He accurately described diseases such as pericarditis, otitis media, and esophageal cancer.
(iii) Pioneer of Experimental Surgery: He experimented on animals before human application, particularly in tracheotomy.
(iv) Medical Literature: His works were referenced by later physicians including Ibn Rushd and Maimonides.
(v) Advocate of Practical Medicine: He focused on real-world application of medicine rather than mere theoretical knowledge.
(7ix)
Ibn Khaldun:
=Area of Specialization=
History, Sociology, Economics, Political Science.
=Contributions=
(i) Founder of Sociology and Historiography: His Muqaddimah (Introduction to History) laid the groundwork for modern sociology and philosophy of history.
(ii) Theory of ‘Asabiyyah (Social Cohesion): He explained the rise and fall of civilizations through the strength of group solidarity.
(iii) Economic Thought: He wrote on labor, value, production, and supply-demand centuries before Western economists.
(iv) Historical Methodology: He stressed critical analysis, objectivity, and causation in historical writing.
(v) Political Philosophy: He offered a dynamic theory of state formation, power, and the cyclical nature of dynasties.
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Number Eight
(8)
=CONCEPT OF ZAKAT AL-FITR=
Zakat al-Fitr, also known as Sadaqat al-Fitr, is a form of charity that is obligatory upon every Muslim at the end of the fasting month of Ramadan. It serves as a means of purification for the fasting person from any indecent act or speech committed during the month and also as a way to provide for the poor and needy so that they may also enjoy the celebration of Eid al-Fitr.
This is distinct from the regular Zakat (alms) and is required of every Muslim, whether male or female, adult or child, free or slave, provided that the individual has sufficient food for the day of Eid and night, as well as enough to spare beyond his and his dependents’ needs.
Zakat al-Fitr also holds a spiritual significance in that it purifies the fasting person from minor sins or shortcomings and connects the individual with the greater community through the act of giving. It reflects the social and moral obligations Muslims owe to the less fortunate and serves as a means to promote unity and compassion.
In addition, it was instituted by Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and is regarded as Wajib (obligatory) upon those who fulfill its conditions. It becomes due at sunset on the last day of Ramadan, and must be paid before the Eid prayer to be considered valid and beneficial for its intended purposes.
=REGULATIONS OF ZAKAT AL-FITR=
Zakat al-Fitr is governed by several important rules in Islamic jurisprudence to ensure its proper implementation and acceptance:
(i) Who Must Pay: Every Muslim who possesses more than his and his dependents’ basic needs for the day and night of Eid must pay Zakat al-Fitr. A father or guardian must pay on behalf of their dependents, including minors and infants.
(ii) Amount: The amount is a fixed quantity of staple food, traditionally measured as one sa‘ (approx. 2.5 to 3 kg) of items such as wheat, barley, dates, raisins, or rice. In many contemporary societies, the equivalent monetary value may be paid, provided it reaches the needy in time for Eid.
(iii) Time of Payment: The time frame to pay Zakat al-Fitr begins at sunset on the last day of Ramadan and continues until the Eid prayer. Paying it before Eid prayer is mandatory; any payment made after the Eid prayer is considered normal charity (sadaqah) and not Zakat al-Fitr.
(iv) Recipients: Zakat al-Fitr must be given to the poor and needy. It cannot be given to those who are not eligible to receive Zakat, such as the descendants of the Prophet (Ahl al-Bayt), the rich, or non-Muslims. Its goal is to assist the poor in celebrating Eid with joy and dignity.
(v) Intention (Niyyah): As with all acts of worship, intention is essential. One must intend that the payment is for Zakat al-Fitr. This distinguishes it from general charity.
(vi) Delivery: It is recommended to give it in kind (as food) to preserve the original practice of the Prophet (SAW), but many scholars permit monetary payment when it better serves the interests of the needy. It should be delivered directly to eligible recipients or through trustworthy agents or organizations before the Eid prayer.
(vii) Non-deferral: It is not permissible to delay the payment beyond the Eid prayer without a valid reason. Doing so renders the act sinful and the charity as no longer fulfilling the obligation of Zakat al-Fitr, although the donation itself still counts as general charity.
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COMPLETED.
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